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Phenotypic plasticity is one of the most important strategies used by organisms with low mobility to survive in fluctuating environments. Phenotypic plasticity plays a vital role in nematodes because they have small bodies and lack wings or legs and thus, cannot move far by themselves.  Bursaphelenchus xylophilus , the pathogenic nematode species that causes pine wilt disease, experiences fluctuating conditions throughout their life history; i.e., in both the phytophagous and mycetophagous phases. However, whether the functional morphology changes between the life phases of  B. xylophilus  remains unknown. Our study revealed differences in the ultrastructure of  B. xylophilus  between the two phases. Well-developed lateral alae and atrophied intestinal microvilli were observed in the phytophagous phase compared with the mycetophagous phase. The ultrastructure in the phytophagous phase was morphologically similar to that at the dauer stage, which enables the larvae to survive in harsh environments. It suggests that the living tree represents a harsh environment for  B. xylophilus , and ultrastructural phenotypic plasticity is a key strategy for  B. xylophilus  to survive in a living tree. In addition, ultrastructural observations of obligate plant-parasitic species closely related to  B. xylophilus  revealed that  B. xylophilus  may be in the process of adapting to feed on plant cells.

Ultrastructural plasticity in the plant-parasitic nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus