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Plant reproductive development from the first appearance of reproductively committed axes through to floral maturation requires massive and rapid remarshalling of gene expression. In dioecious species such as poplar this is further complicated by divergent male and female developmental programs. We used seven time points in male and female balsam poplar ( Populus balsamifera  L.) buds and catkins representing the full annual flowering cycle, to elucidate the effects of time and sex on gene expression during reproductive development. Time (developmental stage) is dominant in patterning gene expression with the effect of sex nested within this. Here, we find (1) evidence for five successive waves of alterations to the chromatin landscape which may be important in setting the overall reproductive trajectory, regardless of sex. (2) Each individual developmental stage is further characterized by marked sex-differential gene expression. (3) Consistent sexually differentiated gene expression regardless of developmental stage reveal candidates for high-level regulators of sex and include the female-specific poplar  ARR17  homologue. There is also consistent male-biased expression of the MADS-box genes  PISTILLATA  and  APETALA3 . Our work provides insights into expression trajectories shaping reproductive development, its potential underlying mechanisms, and sex-specific translation of the genome information into reproductive structures in balsam poplar.

Gene expression trajectories during male and female reproductive development in balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera L.)