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Coastal ecosystems experience substantial natural fluctuations in  p CO 2  and dissolved oxygen (DO) conditions on diel, tidal, seasonal and interannual timescales. Rising carbon dioxide emissions and anthropogenic nutrient input are expected to increase these  p CO 2  and DO cycles in severity and duration of acidification and hypoxia. How coastal marine organisms respond to natural  p CO 2  × DO variability and future climate change remains largely unknown. Here, we assess the impact of static and cycling  p CO 2  × DO conditions of various magnitudes and frequencies on early life survival and growth of an important coastal forage fish,  Menidia menidia . Static low DO conditions severely decreased embryo survival, larval survival, time to 50% hatch, size at hatch and post-larval growth rates. Static elevated  p CO 2  did not affect most response traits, however, a synergistic negative effect did occur on embryo survival under hypoxic conditions (3.0 mg L −1 ). Cycling  p CO 2  × DO, however, reduced these negative effects of static conditions on all response traits with the magnitude of fluctuations influencing the extent of this reduction. This indicates that fluctuations in  p CO 2  and DO may benefit coastal organisms by providing periodic physiological refuge from stressful conditions, which could promote species adaptability to climate change.

Diel and tidal pCO2 × O2 fluctuations provide physiological refuge to early life stages of a coastal forage fish