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Lignocellulosic ethanol production requires high substrate concentrations for its cost-competitiveness. This implies the presence of high concentrations of insoluble solids (IS) at the initial stages of the process, which may limit the fermentation performance of the corresponding microorganism. The presence of 40–60% IS (w/w) resulted in lower glucose consumption rates and reduced ethanol volumetric productivities of  Saccharomyces cerevisiae  F12. Yeast cells exposed to IS exhibited a wrinkled cell surface and a reduced mean cell size due to cavity formation. In addition, the intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased up to 40%. These ROS levels increased up to 70% when both lignocellulose-derived inhibitors and IS were simultaneously present. The general stress response mechanisms (e.g.  DDR2 ,  TPS1  or  ZWF1  genes, trehalose and glycogen biosynthesis, and DNA repair mechanisms) were found repressed, and ROS formation could not be counteracted by the induction of the genes involved in repairing the oxidative damage such as glutathione, thioredoxin and methionine scavenging systems (e.g.  CTA1 ,  GRX4 ,  MXR1 , and  TSA1 ; and the repression of cell cycle progression,  CLN3 ). Overall, these results clearly show the role of IS as an important microbial stress factor that affect yeast cells at physical, physiological, and molecular levels.

Insoluble solids at high concentrations repress yeast’s response against stress and increase intracellular ROS levels