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Phylogenetically distant parasites often infect the same host. Indeed, co-infections can occur at levels greater than expected by chance and are sometimes hyperparasitic. The amphipod  Echinogammarus marinus  presents high levels of co-infection by two intracellular and vertically transmitted parasites, a paramyxid ( Paramarteilia  sp.  Em ) and a microsporidian strain ( Dictyocoela duebenum Em ). This co-infection may be hyperparasitic and result from an exploitative ‘hitchhiking’ or a symbiotic relationship between the parasites. However, the best-studied amphipod species are often collected from contaminated environments and may be immune-compromised. Immune-challenged animals frequently present co-infections and contaminant-exposed amphipods present significantly higher levels of microsporidian infection. This suggests the co-infections in  E. marinus  may result from contaminant-associated compromised immunity. Inconsistent with hyperparasitism, we find that artificial infections transmit  Paramarteilia  without microsporidian. Our population surveys reveal the co-infection relationship is geographically widespread but find only chance co-infection between the  Paramarteilia  and another species of microsporidian,  Dictyocoela berillonum . Furthermore, we identify a haplotype of the  Paramarteilia  that presents no co-infection, even in populations with otherwise high co-infection levels. Overall, our results do not support the compromised-immunity hypothesis but rather that the co-infection of  E. marinus , although non-hyperparasitic, results from a relationship between specific  Paramarteilia  and  Dictyocoela duebenum  strains.

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Population screening and transmission experiments indicate paramyxid-microsporidian co-infection in Echinogammarus marinus represents a non-hyperparasitic relationship between specific parasite strains