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Two unique housefly strains, MSS and N-MRS, were selected and used to clarify mechanisms of sex-associated malathion resistance in the housefly,  Musca domestica . Compared with the lab-susceptible CSS strain, susceptible females and resistant males were observed in the malathion-susceptible MSS strain, while the malathion-resistant near-isogenic line, N-MRS, achieved similar resistance level between genders. Significant synergistic effect of the esterase-inhibitor DEF on resistant houseflies pointed to the important involvement of esterase in this specific malathion resistance. Examination of the carboxylesterase gene  MdαE7  in malathion resistant housefly populations found seven, non-synonymous SNP mutations (Ser 250 -Thr, Trp 251 -Ser, Met 303 -Ile, Leu 354 -Phe, Ser 357 -Leu, Trp 378 -Arg and Ser 383 -Thr), not found in susceptible houseflies, revealing a strong correlation between these mutations and the development of malathion resistance. Further genetic analysis conducted with bioassays by topical application and nucleotide polymorphism detection provided a first line of molecular evidence for a linkage between a male-determining factor and  MdαE7  gene in the MSS and N-MRS males. This linkage results in a much higher level of malathion resistance for males than females in the MSS strain. Lastly, quantitative real-time PCR showed that  MdαE7  was over expressed in the resistant strain due to the increased transcription level of mRNA rather than gene duplication.

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Multiple mutations and overexpression of the MdaE7 carboxylesterase gene associated with male-linked malathion resistance in housefly, Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae)