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The ability of energy carriers to move between atoms and molecules underliesbiochemical and material function. Understanding and controlling energy flow,however, requires observing it on ultrasmall and ultrafast spatiotemporalscales, where energetic and structural roadblocks dictate the fate of energycarriers. Here we developed a non-invasive optical scheme that leveragesnon-resonant interferometric scattering to track tiny changes in materialpolarizability created by energy carriers. We thus map evolving energy carrierdistributions in four dimensions of spacetime with few-nanometer lateralprecision and directly correlate to material morphology. We visualize exciton,charge, and heat transport in polyacene, silicon and perovskite semiconductorsand elucidate how disorder affects energy flow in 3D. For example, we show thatmorphological boundaries in polycrystalline metal halide perovskites possesslateral- and depth-dependent resistivities, blocking lateral transport forsurface but not bulk carriers. We furthermore reveal strategies to interpretenergy transport in disordered environments that will direct the design ofdefect-tolerant materials for the semiconductor industry of tomorrow.

Imaging material functionality through 3D nanoscale tracking of energy flow