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Motivated by a possible convergence of terrestrial limbless locomotionstrategies ultimately determined by interfacial effects, we show how both 3Dgait alterations and locomotory adaptations to heterogeneous terrains can beunderstood through the lens of local friction modulation. Via an`everything-is-friction' modeling approach, compounded by 3D simulations, theemergence and disappearance of a range of locomotory behaviors observed innature is systematically explained in relation to inhabited environments. Ourapproach also simplifies the treatment of terrain heterogeneity, whereby evensolid obstacles may be seen as high friction regions, which we confirm againstexperiments of snakes `diffracting' while traversing rows of posts [1], similarto optical waves. We further this optic analogy by illustrating snakerefraction, reflection and lens focusing. We use these insights to engineersurface friction patterns and demonstrate passive snake navigation in complextopographies. Overall, our study outlines a unified view that connects activeand passive 3D mechanics with heterogeneous interfacial effects to explain abroad set of biological observations, and potentially inspire engineeringdesign.

Friction modulation in limbless, three-dimensional gaits and heterogeneous terrains