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Autophagy has been linked to the regulation of both the prevention and progression of cancer. IFN- γ  has been shown to induce autophagy in multiple cell lines  in vitro . However, whether IFN- γ  can induce autophagy and whether autophagy promotes malignant transformation in healthy lactating bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs) remain unclear. Here, we provide the first evidence of the correlation between IFN- γ  treatment, autophagy and malignant transformation and of the mechanism underlying IFN- γ -induced autophagy and subsequent malignant transformation in primary BMECs. IFN- γ  levels were significantly increased in cattle that received normal long-term dietary corn straw (CS) roughage supplementation. In addition, an increase in autophagy was clearly observed in the BMECs from the mammary tissue of cows expressing high levels of IFN- γ .  In vitro , autophagy was clearly induced in primary BMECs by IFN- γ  within 24 h. This induced autophagy could subsequently promote dramatic primary BMEC transformation. Furthermore, we found that IFN- γ  promoted arginine depletion, activated the general control nonderepressible-2 kinase (GCN2) signalling pathway and resulted in an increase in autophagic flux and the amount of autophagy in BMECs. Overall, our findings are the first to demonstrate that arginine depletion and kinase GCN2 expression mediate IFN- γ -induced autophagy that may promote malignant progression and that immunometabolism, autophagy and cancer are strongly correlated. These results suggest new directions and paths for preventing and treating breast cancer in relation to diet.

cell death discovery

Autophagy mediated by arginine depletion activation of the nutrient sensor GCN2 contributes to interferon-γ-induced malignant transformation of primary bovine mammary epithelial cells