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We present two facile approaches for introducing multivalent displays of tyrosine sulfate mimetic ligands on the surface of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) for application as viral inhibitors. We tested the efficacy of cellulose nanocrystals, prepared either from cotton fibers or Whatman filter paper, to inhibit alphavirus infectivity in Vero (B) cells. Cellulose nanocrystals were produced by sulfuric acid hydrolysis leading to nanocrystal surfaces decorated with anionic sulfate groups. When the fluorescent marker expressing Semliki Forest virus vector, VA7-EGFP, was incubated with CNCs, strong inhibition of virus infectivity was achieved, up to 100 and 88% for cotton and Whatman CNCs, respectively. When surface sulfate groups of CNCs were exchanged for tyrosine sulfate mimetic groups (i.e. phenyl sulfonates), improved viral inhibition was attained. Our observations suggest that the conjugation of target-specific functionalities to CNC surfaces provides a means to control their antiviral activity. Multivalent CNCs did not cause observable in vitro cytotoxicity to Vero (B) cells or human corneal epithelial (HCE-T) cells, even within the 100% virus-inhibitory concentrations. Based on the similar chemistry of known polyanionic inhibitors, our results suggest the potential application of CNCs as inhibitors of other viruses, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and herpes simplex viruses.

Synthesis of Cellulose Nanocrystals Carrying Tyrosine Sulfate Mimetic Ligands and Inhibition of Alphavirus Infection