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In lichens with a competitive ecological strategy, reproduction, dispersal and maintenance of the habitat are considered equally important (Ott 1987). While wind, heavy rain or large animals may detach whole thalli or thallus pieces, small herbivores such as snails, slugs, mites or insects may cause physical damage by grazing systematically on whole lobes or particular thallus parts. In this way, herbivores can decimate preferred species or limit their thallus growth (Lawrey 1983; Fröberg et al. 1993, 2006; Baur et al. 1994, 1995, 2000; Benesperi & Tretiach 2004; Asplund & Gauslaa 2008; Asplund et al. 2010; Asplund 2011). In the case of Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm., it seems that grazing invertebrates may reduce populations of recently established young thalli (Asplund & Gauslaa 2008), but grazing damage does not necessarily change growth rates of this species if growth zones are not affected (Gauslaa et al. 2006). There has been considerable research on regeneration of structures developed after artificially caused damage (Henssen & Jahns 1974; Armstrong 1979, 2010; Honegger 1996a; Honegger et al. 1996). Moreover, studies assessing wounds caused by grazing snails have revealed that different lichen species respond with the same regeneration process; in both cases they activate lobe primordia along wound margins and start with the formation of secondary lobes (Baur et al. 2000; Fröberg et al. 2006). A few studies suggest that regenerative abilities of lichens might have the potential to restructure new thalli from fragments that have survived the gut passage of feeding invertebrates (Fröberg et al. 2001; Meier et al. 2002; Boch et al. 2011). However, evidence for successful regeneration under field conditions is still lacking. During fieldwork, we regularly observe thalli with feeding damage or dying lobes that had formed regeneration lobes. All previous studies, however, have focused on regeneration structures and too little attention has been paid to repair mechanisms in wound healing. In this study, we report on morphological reactions to physical damage in field specimens of L. pulmonaria and Lobaria amplissima (Scop.) Forss. that were wounded through natural processes including herbivory and mechanical stress.

Morphological aspects associated with repair and regeneration in Lobaria pulmonaria and L. amplissima (Peltigerales, Ascomycota)