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One significant difference between the atmospheres of stars and exoplanets isthe presence of condensed particles (clouds or hazes) in the atmosphere of thelatter.  The main goal of this paper is to develop a self-consistent microphysicalcloud model for 1D atmospheric codes, which can reproduce some observedproperties of Earth, such as the average albedo, surface temperature, andglobal energy budget. The cloud model is designed to be computationallyefficient, simple to implement, and applicable for a wide range of atmosphericparameters for planets in the habitable zone.  We use a 1D, cloud-free, radiative-convective, and photochemical equilibriumcode originally developed by Kasting, Pavlov, Segura, and collaborators asbasis for our cloudy atmosphere model. The cloud model is based on models usedby the meteorology community for Earth's clouds. The free parameters of themodel are the relative humidity and number density of condensation nuclei, andthe precipitation efficiency. In a 1D model, the cloud coverage cannot beself-consistently determined, thus we treat it as a free parameter.  We apply this model to Earth (aerosol number density 100 cm^-3, relativehumidity 77 %, liquid cloud fraction 40 %, and ice cloud fraction 25 %) andfind that a precipitation efficiency of 0.8 is needed to reproduce the albedo,average surface temperature and global energy budget of Earth. We performsimulations to determine how the albedo and the climate of a planet isinfluenced by the free parameters of the cloud model. We find that theplanetary climate is most sensitive to changes in the liquid water cloudfraction and precipitation efficiency.  The advantage of our cloud model is that the cloud height and the dropletsizes are self-consistently calculated, both of which influence the climate andalbedo of exoplanets.

A 1D microphysical cloud model for Earth, and Earth-like exoplanets. Liquid water and water ice clouds in the convective troposphere