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The Pliocene flora of Frankfurt am Main described by Karl Mädler during the first half of the twentieth century is a key flora for the European Pliocene. In the present study, we revised the leaf fossil taxa described by Mädler and investigated plant material collected after Mädler’s publication. The revised and augmented floral list comprises seven new species and some new combinations of taxa described by Mädler. In total, 16 gymnosperm species in 15 genera and 73 angiosperm species (of which 15 could not be assigned to a genus) in 40 genera are recognised in the leaf record. Main characteristics of the flora are the high diversity of conifers, the diverse assemblage of exclusively deciduous Fagaceae, including six species of oaks, and the high diversity of Rosaceae. These features indicate cool temperate climatic conditions (comparable to Lugano in southern Switzerland). Angiosperm genera that are today confined to North America and/or East Asia ( Eucommia ,  Magnolia  and  Sassafras ) also are deciduous, whereas evergreen taxa are shrubs typical of the understorey ( Buxus ,  Ilex ,  Pachysandra ,  Prunus lusitanica  type) and  Viscum . Eighteen taxa recorded in the Pliocene of Frankfurt am Main are today absent from western Eurasia and eastern North America, and 25 taxa are absent from western North America. This shows ( i ) a strong biogeographic link of the Pliocene flora of Frankfurt am Main with East Asia, ( ii ) surprisingly high levels of speciation (Pliocene endemisms) and ( iii ) that the European flora was more diverse in woody species shortly before the onset of major Pleistocene glaciations than today.

The Pliocene flora of Frankfurt am Main, Germany: taxonomy, palaeoenvironments and biogeographic affinities