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Stunting is an important risk factor for early growth and health implications throughout the life course, yet until recently, studies have rarely focused on populations exposed to high levels of particulate matter pollution or on developing countries most vulnerable to stunting and its associated health and developmental impacts. We systematically searched for epidemiologic studies published up to 15 August 2020 that examined the association between ambient and household particulate exposure and postnatal stunting (height-for-age z-score) and prenatal determinants (small for gestational age or SGA, or equivalent) of stunting. We conducted the literature search in PUBMED, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases in August 2020, using keywords including, but not limited to, "particulate matter," "indoor/household air pollution," and "adverse birth outcomes," to identify relevant articles. Forty-five studies conducted in 29 countries met our inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. We found significant positive associations between SGA and a 10 μg/m 3 increase in fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) exposure over the entire pregnancy [OR = 1.08; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03-1.13], with similar SGA impact during the second and third trimesters, and from high exposure quartile of PM 2.5 exposure during the entire pregnancy. A 19% increased risk of postnatal stunting (95% CI: 1.10, 1.29) was also associated with postnatal exposure to household air pollution. Our analysis shows consistent, significant, and noteworthy evidence of elevated risk of stunting-related health outcomes with ambient PM 2.5 and household air pollution exposure. This evidence reinforces the importance of promoting clean air as part of an integrated approach to preventing stunting.

Ambient and household air pollution on early-life determinants of stunting—a systematic review and meta-analysis