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Graphical abstract  To better understand the nanosize-relevant toxic effects and underlying mechanisms,  N -acetylcysteine (NAC), as a mitigation agent, an ionic form of Zn (ZnCl 2 ), and the binary mixture of ZnO with different particle sizes (15 nm and 140 nm), was used in toxicity assays with the nematode  Panagrellus redivivus . The ZnCl 2  concentrations were applied to show the amount of dissolved Zn ions present in the test system. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) measuring method was developed to fit the used test system. Our studies have shown that NAC can mitigate the toxic effects of both studied particle sizes. In the applied concentrations, ZnCl 2  was less toxic than both of the ZnO particles. This finding indicates that not only ions and ROS produced by the dissolution are behind the toxic effects of the ZnO NPs, but also other particle size-dependent toxic effects, like the spontaneous ROS generation, are also relevant. When the two materials were applied in binary mixtures, the toxic effects increased significantly, and the dissolved zinc content and the ROS generation also increased. It is assumed that the chemical and physical properties of the materials have been mutually reinforcing to form a more reactive mixture that is more toxic to the  P. redivivus  test organism. Our findings demonstrate the importance of using mitigation agent and mixtures to evaluate the size-dependent toxicity of the ZnO.Supplementary Information  The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11356-021-12674-7.

Toxicity mitigation by N-acetylcysteine and synergistic toxic effect of nano and bulk ZnO to Panagrellus redivivus