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Microscopy and flow cytometry (FCM) were used to study somatic embryogenesis (SE) from zygotic embryos of Trifolium nigrescens Viv. to determine if there were any relationships between characteristics of somatic embryos (morphology, anatomy, genome size stability) and their regenerability. Embryoids were induced on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing 4 mg l−1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2 mg l−1 N6-[2-isopentenyl]-adenine (2iP) either directly from hypocotyls or via an intervening callus, depending on the duration of culture. The morphology of somatic embryos varied from zygotic-like structures to abnormal structures including horn-shaped, polycotyledonary, and fused embryoids. The incidence of abnormalities was higher in callus cultures than in direct regeneration. Horn-shaped embryoids were the most frequent type of abnormal embryos. Only embryoids having zygotic-like morphology regenerated into plantlets. Histological observations revealed that the absence of shoot and root apical meristems along with parenchymatization of embryos were major obstacles to conversion of horn-shaped embryoids. The estimated 2C value for T. nigrescens was 0.9 pg. FCM analysis revealed differences in DNA content between embryoids induced via an intervening callus and those produced directly from explants. Individuals with species-specific as well as increased DNA content were detected among those zygotic-like embryos derived from callus, but all horn-shaped embryoids had increased genome sizes. The observed lack of differences in DNA content between zygotic-like and horn-shaped embryoids, from direct SE, indicated that these phenotypic abnormalities were of physiological origin. The mean DNA content of regenerants was species-specific, suggesting that only diploid embryoids were capable for regeneration into plantlets

Morphohistological and flow cytometric analyses of somatic embryogenesis in Trifolium nigrescens Viv.