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Natural phenomena occur in hierarchies across a wide spectrum of spatiotemporal scales. An equally wide range of models has been developed at each hierarchical level to model these phenomena (Wu et al. 2006). At a given level of hierarchy, a modeling system is composed of interacting components (i.e., lower-level entities) and is itself a component of a larger system (i.e., higher level controls) that influences behavior (Delcourt and Delcourt 1988; Wu and Loucks 1995; Wu 1999; Wu and David 2002; Lischke et al. 2007). Forest landscape models (FLMs) simulate forest landscape processes (FLPs) at landscape scales and stand dynamics as a function of lower-level entities operating at site-scales, while incorporating regional environments (e.g., climate) as higher level controls (Fig. 1). FLPs include seed dispersal and natural and anthropogenic disturbances such as wildfire, windstorm, insect outbreak, disease spread, timber management activities (He et al. 2011). The fundamental difference between FLMs and other terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs) (e.g., stand dynamic, biogeographical, biogeochemical, land surface, and DGVM models) (Fisher et al. 2014) is that FLMs simulate FLPs as spatially contiguous and interacting processes at a fine resolution (He 2008). For example, in FLMs fire may spread over a group of spatially contiguous cells (pixels) as a function of vegetation, terrain, fuel, and wind on these cells, but because of the need to simulate FLPs and site-scale forest dynamics, FLMs typically operate at relatively fine spatial resolutions (e.g. 30–300 m cell size) and moderate temporal resolution (e.g., yearly). TBMs on the other hand use coarser spatial resolutions (e.g., 10,000–50,000 m) and relatively fine temporal resolution (e.g. daily or monthly). In TBMs, cell-level dynamics are simulated based on either interactions between downscaled physiological drivers and plant functional types (Neilson et al. 2005) or derived from the observed distributions of environmental variables (Pearson and Dawson 2003). These cell-level results are then aggregated to the region of simulation such H. S. He School of Geographical Sciences, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China

Modeling forest landscapes in a changing climate: theory and application