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With increasing anthropogenic pressure, interactions between humans and wildlife may become more frequent, including conflictual ones. To reduce conflicts, it is important to understand how different factors (e.g. education, previous experience, demographic variables) interplay with each other and contribute to the emergence of negative attitudes and behaviours toward wildlife in humans. To address this issue, we conducted a large-scale questionnaire in Malaysia, focusing on potential conflicts between human and other primates. We used generalized linear mixed models to assess how formal education, knowledge about primates, negative experience and potential competition affected participants’ negative attitudes to primates (i.e. how humans perceive primates), their behavioural intentions (i.e. opinion on how to reduce conflicts) and behaviour (i.e. measures taken to reduce negative interactions). We found that negative experience and potential competition had a negative impact on participants’ attitude and behavior (i.e. primates were more likely perceived as filthy, as negatively affecting residents’ health and safety, and as an increasing problem, with participants more likely to use invasive methods, including captures). Both higher education and better knowledge of primates predicted more positive behavioural intentions (i.e. primates should be protected, non-invasive interventions should be used). Higher education, however, was also linked to more negative attitudes (i.e. primates negatively affect residents’ health and safety), and partly to negative behavior (e.g. use of invasive methods). In contrast, better knowledge about primates predicted positive behaviour (i.e. exclusive use of non-invasive methods). Therefore, although better knowledge of primates had no clear effect on human attitudes, it may impact on their decisions to reduce potential conflicts with wildlife, and might be the most powerful tool to mitigate conflicts between humans and other species.

Understanding potential conflicts between human and non-human-primates: a large-scale survey in Malaysia