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Since 2012, a massive invasion of the three-spined stickleback ( Gasterosteus aculeatus ) has taken place into the pelagic area of Lake Constance. This species, which had previously been restricted to the littoral zone, is now the dominant pelagic fish and the previously dominant whitefish ( Coregonus wartmanni ) has suffered severe reductions in growth and recruitment. In this study, in total, 2871 sticklebacks were collected via monthly sessions over a 4-year period in pelagic and benthic areas of Lake Constance and examined for signs of infection with  Schistocephalus solidus , a parasite known to be potentially fatal. The infection risk to sticklebacks increases throughout the course of the year and is size- and sex-dependent. Habitat has only a marginal impact. All parasite-induced harm is imparted after stickleback spawning and parental care is over. The results did not support the hypothesis that the invasion of the pelagic area might be driven by parasite-avoiding behaviour. Furthermore, the impact of the parasite is likely to be limited to post-reproductive adults, thereby ensuring stable reproduction of the hosts despite high rates of transmission and mortality. In consequence, stickleback stock development is independent of  S. solidus  infection, leading to secure coexistence of host and parasite even at extraordinary high host levels.

Stickleback mass occurrence driven by spatially uneven parasite pressure? Insights into infection dynamics, host mortality, and epizootic variability