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The use of unconventional model organisms is significantly increasing in different fields of research, widely contributing to advance life sciences understanding. Among fishes, the cyprinid  Carassius auratus  (goldfish) is largely used for studies on comparative and evolutionary endocrinology, neurobiology, adaptive and conservation physiology, as well as for translational research aimed to explore mechanisms that may be useful in an applicative biomedical context. More recently, the research possibilities offered by the goldfish are further expanded to cardiac studies. A growing literature is available to illustrate the complex networks involved in the modulation of the goldfish cardiac performance, also in relation to the influence of environmental signals. However, an overview on the existing current knowledge is not yet available. By discussing the mechanisms that in  C. auratus  finely regulate the cardiac function under basal conditions and under environmental challenges, this review highlights the remarkable flexibility of the goldfish heart in relation not only to the basic morpho-functional design and complex neuro-humoral traits, but also to its extraordinary biochemical-metabolic plasticity and its adaptive potential. The purpose of this review is also to emphasize the power of the heart of  C. auratus  as an experimental tool useful to investigate mechanisms that could be difficult to explore using more conventional animal models and complex cardiac designs.

The goldfish Carassius auratus: an emerging animal model for comparative cardiac research