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In some species, populations routinely contain a mixture of lone and group-living individuals. Such facultative sociality may reflect individual differences in behavior as well as adaptive responses to variation in local environmental conditions. To explore interactions between individual- and population-level variabilities in behavior in a species provisionally described as facultatively social, we examined spatial and social relationships within a population of highland tuco-tucos ( Ctenomys opimus ) at Laguna de los Pozuelos, Jujuy Province, Argentina. Using data collected over 5 consecutive years, we sought to (1) confirm the regular occurrence of both lone and group-living individuals and (2) characterize the temporal consistency of individual social relationships. Our analyses revealed that although the study population typically contained lone as well as group-living animals, individual spatial and social relationships varied markedly over time. Specifically, the extent to which individuals remained resident in the same location across years varied, as did the number of conspecifics with which an animal lived, with an overall tendency for individuals to live in larger groups over successive years. Collectively, these analyses indicate that population-level patterns of behavior in  C. opimus  are consistent with facultative sociality but that this variation does not arise due to persistent differences in individual behavior (i.e., living alone versus with conspecifics). Instead, based on changes in spatial and social relationships across years, we suggest that variation in the tendency to live in groups is shaped primarily by local ecological and demographic conditions. Significance statement Characterizing variation in conspecific relationships is critical to understanding the adaptive bases for social behavior. Using data collected over 5 successive years, we examined temporal variation in spatial and social relationships within a population of highland tuco-tucos ( C. opimus ) from northern Argentina. In addition to providing the first multi-year assessment of the behavior and demography of this species, our analyses generate important insights into relationships between individual behavior and population-level patterns of social organization. The behavioral variability evident in our study population suggests that  C. opimus  is an ideal system in which to explore the causes and consequences of individual differences in social behavior.

Multi-year assessment of variability in spatial and social relationships in a subterranean rodent, the highland tuco-tuco (Ctenomys opimus)