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The nature of epistasis has important consequences for the evolutionarysignificance of sex and recombination. Recent efforts to find negativeepistasis as source of negative linkage disequilibrium and associated long-termsex advantage have yielded little support. Sign epistasis, where the sign ofthe fitness effects of alleles varies across genetic backgrounds, isresponsible for ruggedness of the fitness landscape with implications for theevolution of sex that have been largely unexplored. Here, we describe fitnesslandscapes for two sets of strains of the asexual fungus \emph{Aspergillusniger} involving all combinations of five mutations. We find that $\sim 30$% ofthe single-mutation fitness effects are positive despite their negative effectin the wild-type strain, and that several local fitness maxima and minima arepresent. We then compare adaptation of sexual and asexual populations on theseempirical fitness landscapes using simulations. The results show a generaldisadvantage of sex on these rugged landscapes, caused by the break down byrecombination of genotypes escaping from local peaks. Sex facilitates escapefrom a local peak only for some parameter values on one landscape, indicatingits dependence on the landscape's topography. We discuss possible reasons forthe discrepancy between our results and the reports of faster adaptation ofsexual populations.

Exploring the effect of sex on an empirical fitness landscape