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Metallic nanoparticles exist in significant diversity in structure and function with particular context to the safer use in biological sciences. The antibacterial properties of nanoparticles are attributed to the mechanisms, including but not limited to the generation of reactive oxygen species, direct damage to the cellular contents, disrupting cell wall integrity, and inhibiting efflux pumps. These mechanisms along with those of the antibiotics may potentiate resistance modulation of pathogenic bacteria. This study aimed to evaluate tungsten oxide (WO 3 ) nanoparticle-coupled antibiotics for their structural and functional characteristics, safety profile in terms of genotoxicity, and antibacterial potential against drug resistant  S. aureus  and  E. coli  of Houbara bustard birds. The WO 3  nanoparticles were prepared by hydrothermal method while antibiotics were coupled by the chemical reduction method furnishing seven treatments as non-coupled tungsten oxide (WO 3 ) nanoparticles (W), and WO 3  nanoparticle-coupled with; ciprofloxacin (CW), oxytetracycline (OW), ampicillin (AW), ciprofloxacin+ penicillin (CPW), oxytetracycline+ penicillin (OPW), and ampicillin+ ciprofloxacin (ACW). X-ray diffraction studies indicated that WO 3  was highly crystalline, and FTIR confirmed the presence of functional groups like W═O, O–W–O, and W–O–O–W, validating the successful synthesis of WO 3  nanoparticles through hydrothermal method. Phenotypic antibacterial expression in terms of zone of inhibition of treatments at 100 and 10 µg/mL was found to be higher in the case of AW and CW, respectively, against  E. coli;  CW and ACW against  S. aureus;  and CW at both concentrations against the mixed bacterial culture of  S. aureus  and  E coli . Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against both  S. aureus  and  E. coli , in case of CW, was found to be 20.84 ± 8.07 µg/mL, while AW showed 26.04 ± 9.02 µg/mL against mixed bacterial culture. Safety profiles of nanoparticle-coupled antibiotics, on the other hand, revealed moderate to lower genotoxicity in the form of DNA damage on onion cells in dose and time-dependent manner. The study thus concluded that tungsten oxide nanoparticle-coupled antibiotics were potential antibacterial candidates against enteric pathogens of Houbara bustard birds but requires careful dose optimization as a crucial step for biosafety profiles of WO 3 -based therapeutic formulations.

Multifaceted insights into WO 3 nanoparticle-coupled antibiotics to modulate resistance in enteric pathogens of Houbara bustard birds