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Background Refugia is considered to be critical for maintaining biodiversity; while discerning the type and pattern of refugia is pivotal for our understanding of evolutionary processes in the context of conservation. Interglacial and glacial refugia have been studied throughout subtropical China. However, studies on refugia along the oceanic–continental gradient have largely been ignored. We used a liana  Actinidia eriantha , which occurs across the eastern moist evergreen broad-leaved forests of subtropical China, as a case study to test hypotheses of refugia along the oceanic–continental gradient and ‘oceanic’ adaptation. Results The phylogeographic pattern of  A. eriantha  was explored using a combination of three cpDNA markers and 38 nuclear microsatellite loci, Species distribution modelling and dispersal corridors analysis. Our data showed intermediate levels of genetic diversity [haplotype diversity ( h  T ) = 0.498; unbiased expected heterozygosity (U H  E ) = 0.510] both at the species and population level. Microsatellite loci revealed five clusters largely corresponding to geographic regions. Coalescent time of cpDNA lineages was dated to the middle Pliocene (ca. 4.03 Ma). Both geographic distance and climate difference have important roles for intraspecific divergence of the species. The Zhejiang-Fujian Hilly Region was demonstrated to be a refugium along the oceanic–continental gradient of the species and fit the ‘refugia in refugia’ pattern. Species distribution modelling analysis indicated that Precipitation of Coldest Quarter (importance of 44%), Temperature Seasonality (29%) and Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter (25%) contributed the most to model development. By checking the isolines in the three climate layers, we found that  A. eriantha  prefer higher precipitation during the coldest quarter, lower seasonal temperature difference and lower mean temperature during the wettest quarter, which correspond to ‘oceanic’ adaptation.  Actinidia eriantha  expanded to its western distribution range along the dispersal corridor repeatedly during the glacial periods. Conclusions Overall, our results provide integrated evidence demonstrating that the Zhejiang-Fujian Hilly Region is a refugium along the oceanic–continental gradient of  Actinidia eriantha  in subtropical China and that speciation is attributed to ‘oceanic’ adaptation. This study gives a deeper understanding of the refugia in subtropical China and will contribute to the conservation and utilization of kiwifruit wild resources in the context of climate change.

bmc plant biology

Molecular phylogeography and species distribution modelling evidence of ‘oceanic’ adaptation for Actinidia eriantha with a refugium along the oceanic–continental gradient in a biodiversity hotspot