Psychology, marketing and warnings research: Bridging the gap between consumer theory and warning practice

It is remarkable that although warnings appear on thousands of consumer and industrial products, little empirical research has been conducted (Cox, Wogalter, Stokes, & Murff 1997). It is also remarkable that marketing has contributed so little to what empirical research evaluating product warnings can be found. This is unfortunate, because the marketing discipline has a research tradition, theoretical models, and experimental procedures that could stimulate and advance significantly the state of the art in warnings research. · Over the last century, products, equipment, and environments have become increasingly complex technologically, resulting in many potential hazards not readily apparent to laypeople. In response to this problem, thousands of warnings have been developed to protect workers and consumers from injury, illness, and property damage. The increased presence of warnings has been fueled by several important forces. One has been the public's increased concern about safety and health. An important manifestation of this concern has been the increasingly proactive role of governments and standards organizations around the world in mandating warnings. A second manifestation has been the U. S. judicial system's shift from the theory of negligence to the theory of strict liability, resulting in a reduction in the burden of proofrequired for plaintiffs in product-liability lawsuits (Madden, 1988). Manufactur-