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Since March 2020, the environment surrounding football has changeddramatically because of the COVID-19 pandemic. After a few months' break,re-scheduled matches were held behind closed doors without spectators. The mainobjective of this study is a quantitative evaluation of ``crowd effects'' onhome advantage, using the results of these closed matches. The proposedanalysis uses pairwise comparison method to reduce the effects caused by theunbalanced schedule. The following conclusions were drawn from the statisticalhypothesis tests conducted in this study: In four major European leagues, thehome advantage is reduced in closed matches compared to than in the normalsituation, i.e., with spectators. The reduction amounts among leagues weredifferent. For example, in Germany, the home advantage was negative during theclosed-match period. On the other hand,in England,statistically significantdifferences in home advantage were not observed between closed matches andnormal situation.

Home advantage of European major football leagues under COVID-19 pandemic