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Tropical forests are under unprecedented pressurefor conversion to pastoral and agricultural land orto plantations (including for biofuel production) andfrom the supply and extraction of forest goods andservices, including timber and bushmeat (Kant2004, Gardner et al. 2009). To preserve them, mucheffort has gone into setting up and managing anetwork of protected areas because, for variousconstituencies, conservation is best served byoutright protection (Bowles et al. 1998),occasionally after initial extraction of valuablespecies (Rice et al. 1997). Others, however, see thisas an ultimately limited option (Wood 1995, Lugo1999, Pearce et al. 2003, Gardner et al. 2009). Theyargue the need to include sustainable forestmanagement, balancing productivity and offtakewith efforts to conserve biodiversity, maintain vitalforest functions, and continue supplying varioussocial and economic benefits, across various scales.The principles underpinning forestry managementhave shifted over time. The initial focus onachieving sustained production of a singlecommodity, almost always timber (sustained-yieldforestry, SYF), served its purpose for a long time(Steen 1984). Nevertheless, SYF proved inadequateboth conceptually and practically in satisfying eitherexisting societal demands on forests (e.g.,sustaining local livelihoods) or emerging ones (e.g.,recreation, ecosystem service provision). Forestsproduce much more than just timber, and theinterests at stake extend beyond those of loggingcompanies, timber merchants, silvicultural managers,or researchers (Michon et al. 2007). Operationally,the paradigm of optimal harvesting of a species, onthe assumption that its population is reasonablystable and will return to equilibrium if harvestedappropriately, is too restrictive (see also Hughes etal. (2005) in the context of marine resources). Amore realistic approach is one in which manydifferent outcomes are possible depending on howharvesting interacts with other drivers anddisturbances, each with characteristic scale (local,national, global), type (anthropogenic, natural),recurrence interval (seasonal, erratic, yearly, orcentennial), and intensity (mild, severe).New societal demands on forests derived from thesustainable development discourse pushed the SYFparadigm further aside and led to one based on thesustained production of multiple goods and services(multiple-use forestry, MUF). This was soonextended to include provisions for maintainingfuture options and not damaging other ecosystems(sustainable forest management, SFM; UnitedNations 1992). This was given further supportthrough the introduction of certification, designedto assure consumers that the products beingpurchased were being produced sustainably,equitably, and with appropriate management(Upton and Bass 1995). The limited success of MUFand SFM (Gong 2002, Hammond and Zagt 2006),seen against the backdrop of ongoing tropicaldeforestation, led in turn to the need to look beyondthe forests and to consider the integratedmanagement of land, water, and living resources.This approach, variously called “the ecosystemapproach” or “integrated natural resourcemanagement (INRM),” was designed to achieveboth conservation and sustainable use in anequitable way at the landscape level. At each stage,unfortunately, management has become morecomplicated, forcing us to recognize complexdynamics, with their attendant shifts and thresholds,

Sustainable Forest Management in the Tropics: Is Everything in Order but the Patient Still Dying?