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Debris thickness plays an important role in regulating ablation rates ondebris-covered glaciers as well as controlling the likely size and locationof supraglacial lakes. Despite its importance, lack of knowledge aboutdebris properties and associated energy fluxes prevents the robust inclusionof the effects of a debris layer into most glacier surface energy balancemodels. This study combines fieldwork with a debris-covered glacier energybalance model to estimate debris temperatures and ablation rates onImja–Lhotse Shar Glacier located in the Everest region of Nepal. The debrisproperties that significantly influence the energy balance model are thethermal conductivity, albedo, and surface roughness. Fieldwork was conductedto measure thermal conductivity and a method was developed using Structurefrom Motion to estimate surface roughness. Debris temperatures measuredduring the 2014 melt season were used to calibrate and validate adebris-covered glacier energy balance model by optimizing the albedo,thermal conductivity, and surface roughness at 10 debris-covered sites.Furthermore, three methods for estimating the latent heat flux wereinvestigated. Model calibration and validation found the three methods hadsimilar performance; however, comparison of modeled and measured ablationrates revealed that assuming the latent heat flux is zero may overestimateablation. Results also suggest that where debris moisture is unknown,measurements of the relative humidity or precipitation may be used toestimate wet debris periods, i.e., when the latent heat flux is non-zero.The effect of temporal resolution on the model was also assessed and resultsshowed that both 6 h data and daily average data slightly underestimatedebris temperatures and ablation rates; thus these should only be used toestimate rough ablation rates when no other data are available

Debris-covered glacier energy balance model for Imja–Lhotse Shar Glacier in the Everest region of Nepal