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The assessment of anthropogenic impacts on the marine environment is challenged by the accessibility, accuracy and validity of biogeographical\udinformation. Offshore wind farm projects require large-scale ecological surveys before, during and after construction,\udin order to assess potential effects on the distribution and abundance of protected species. The robustness of site-specific population\udestimates depends largely on the extent and design of spatial coverage and the accuracy of the applied census technique. Standard\udenvironmental assessment studies in Germany have so far included aerial visual surveys to evaluate potential impacts of offshore\udwind farms on seabirds and marine mammals. However, low flight altitudes, necessary for the visual classification of species, disturb\udsensitive bird species and also hold significant safety risks for the observers. Thus, aerial surveys based on high-resolution digital\udimagery, which can be carried out at higher (safer) flight altitudes (beyond the rotor-swept zone of the wind turbines) have become a\udmandatory requirement, technically solving the problem of distant-related observation bias. A purpose-assembled imagery system\udincluding medium-format cameras in conjunction with a dedicated geo-positioning platform delivers series of orthogonal digital\udimages that meet the current technical requirements of authorities for surveying marine wildlife at a comparatively low cost. At a\udflight altitude of 425 m, a focal length of 110 mm, implemented forward motion compensation (FMC) and exposure times ranging\udbetween 1/1600 and 1/1000 s, the twin-camera system generates high quality 16 bit RGB images with a ground sampling distance\ud(GSD) of 2 cm and an image footprint of 155 x 410 m. The image files are readily transferrable to a GIS environment for further\udediting, taking overlapping image areas and areas affected by glare into account. The imagery can be routinely screened by the\udhuman eye guided by purpose-programmed software to distinguish biological from non-biological signals. Each detected seabird or\udmarine mammal signal is identified to species level or assigned to a species group and automatically saved into a geo-database for\udsubsequent quality assurance, geo-statistical analyses and data export to third-party users. The relative size of a detected object can\udbe accurately measured which provides key information for species-identification. During the development and testing of this system\uduntil 2015, more than 40 surveys have produced around 500.000 digital aerial images, of which some were taken in specially\udprotected areas (SPA) of the Baltic Sea and thus include a wide range of relevant species. Here, we present the technical principles of\udthis comparatively new survey approach and discuss the key methodological challenges related to optimizing survey design and\udworkflow in view of the pending regulatory requirements for effective environmental impact assessments

the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences/international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences

MONITORING SEABIRDS AND MARINE MAMMALS BY GEOREFERENCED AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY