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. Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is highly variable in spatial andtemporal terms due to the interplay of several terrestrial and marineprocesses. While discrete in situ measurements may provide a continuoustemporal scale to investigate underlying processes and thus account fortemporal heterogeneity, remotely sensed thermal infrared radiation shedslight on the spatial heterogeneity as it provides a continuous spatial scale. Here we report results of the combination of both the continuous spatial andtemporal scales, using the ability of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) tohover above a predefined location, and the continuous recording of thermalradiation of a coastal area at the Dead Sea (Israel). With a flight altitudeof 65 m above the water surface resulting in a spatial resolution of 13 cmand a thermal camera (FLIR Tau2) that measures the upwelling long-waveinfrared radiation at 4 Hz resolution, we are able to generate a time seriesof thermal radiation images that allows us to analyse spatio-temporal SGDdynamics. In turn, focused SGD spots, otherwise camouflaged by strong lateralflow dynamics, are revealed that may not be observed on single thermalradiation images. The spatio-temporal behaviour of an SGD-induced thermalradiation pattern varies in size and over time by up to 155 % for focusedSGDs and by up to 600 % for diffuse SGDs due to different underlying flowdynamics. These flow dynamics even display a short-term periodicity of theorder of 20 to 78 s for diffuse SGD, which we attribute to an interplaybetween conduit maturity–geometry and wave set-up.

Combining continuous spatial and temporal scales for SGD investigations using UAV-based thermal infrared measurements