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. Grey water footprint (WF) reduction is essential given the increasing waterpollution associated with food production and the limited assimilationcapacity of fresh water. Fertilizer application can contribute significantlyto the grey WF as a result of nutrient leaching to groundwater and runoff tostreams. The objective of this study is to explore the effect of the nitrogenapplication rate (from 25 to 300 kg N ha −1) , nitrogen form (inorganic Nor manure N), tillage practice (conventional or no-tillage) and irrigationstrategy (full or deficit irrigation) on the nitrogen load to groundwater andsurface water, crop yield and the N-related grey water footprint of cropproduction by a systematic model-based assessment. As a case study, weconsider irrigated maize grown in Spain on loam soil in a semi-aridenvironment, whereby we simulate the 20-year period 1993–2012. The waterand nitrogen balances of the soil and plant growth at the field scale weresimulated with the Agricultural Policy Environmental eXtender (APEX) model.As a reference management package, we assumethe use of inorganic N (nitrate), conventional tillage and full irrigation.For this reference, the grey WF at a usual N application rate of300 kg N ha −1 (with crop yield of 11.1 t ha −1) is 1100 m 3  t −1 ,which can be reduced by 91 % towards 95 m 3  t −1 when the Napplication rate is reduced to 50 kg N ha −1 (with a yield of 3.7 t ha −1) .The grey WF can be further reduced to 75 m 3  t −1 byshifting the management package to manure N and deficit irrigation (with cropyield of 3.5 t ha −1) . Although water pollution can thus be reduceddramatically, this comes together with a great yield reduction, and a muchlower water productivity (larger green plus blue WF) as well. The overall(green, blue and grey) WF per tonne is found to be minimal at an Napplication rate of 150 kg N ha −1 , with manure, no-tillage and deficitirrigation (with crop yield of 9.3 t ha −1) . The paper shows that thereis a trade-off between grey WF and crop yield, as well as a trade-off betweenreducing water pollution (grey WF) and water consumption (green and blue WF).Applying manure instead of inorganic N and deficit instead of full irrigationare measures that reduce both water pollution and water consumption with a16 % loss in yield.

hydrology and earth system sciences

Grey water footprint reduction in irrigated crop production: effect of nitrogen application rate, nitrogen form, tillage practice and irrigation strategy