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Stream temperature dynamics during winter are less well studied than  summer thermal regimes, but the winter season thermal regime can be  critical for fish growth and development in coastal catchments. The  winter thermal regimes of Pacific Northwest headwater streams, which  provide vital winter habitat for salmonids and their food sources, may  be particularly sensitive to changes in climate because they can  remain ice-free throughout the year and are often located in  rain-on-snow zones. This study examined winter stream temperature  patterns and controls in small headwater catchments within the  rain-on-snow zone at the Malcolm Knapp Research Forest, near  Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Two hypotheses were addressed by  this study: (1) winter stream temperatures are primarily controlled by  advective fluxes associated with runoff processes and (2) stream  temperatures should be depressed during rain-on-snow events, compared  to rain-on-bare-ground events, due to the cooling effect of rain passing  through the snowpack prior to infiltrating the soil or being delivered  to the stream as saturation-excess overland flow. A reach-scale energy  budget analysis of two winter seasons revealed that the advective  energy input associated with hillslope runoff overwhelms vertical energy  exchanges (net radiation, sensible and latent heat fluxes, bed heat  conduction, and stream friction) and hyporheic energy fluxes during rain and rain-on-snow  events. Historical stream temperature data and modelled snowpack  dynamics were used to explore the influence of transient snow cover on  stream temperature over 13 winters. When snow was not present, daily  stream temperature during winter rain events tended to increase with  increasing air temperature. However, when snow was present, stream  temperature was capped at about 5 °C, regardless of  air temperature. The stream energy budget modelling and historical  analysis support both of our hypotheses. A key implication is that  climatic warming may generate higher winter stream temperatures in the  rain-on-snow zone due to both increased rain temperature and reduced  cooling effect of snow cover

Winter stream temperature in the rain-on-snow zone of the Pacific Northwest: influences of hillslope runoff and transient snow cover