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An overview of the turbulent structures seen by MF, HF and VHF radars in the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere is presented, drawing on evidence from previous radar measurements, in situ studies, laboratory observations, observations at frequencies other than those under focus, and modelling studies. We are particularly interested in structures at scales less than one radar pulse length, and smaller than the beam width, and especially the degree of anisotropy of turbulence at these scales. Previous radar observations are especially important in regard to the degree of anisotropy, and we highlight the role that these studies have had in furthering our understanding in this area. The contrasts and similarities between the models of anisotropic turbulence and specular reflection are considered. The need for more intense studies of anisotropy at MF, HF and VHF is especially highlighted, since this is an area in which these radars can make important contributions to the understanding of atmospheric turbulence.  <b>Key words. </b>Meteorology and atmospheric dynamics (turbulence) – Atmospheric composition and structure (instruments and techniques) – History of geophysics (atmospheric sciences

annales geophysicae

The structure of turbulence in the middle and lower atmosphere seen by and deduced from MF, HF and VHF radar, with special emphasis on small-scale features and anisotropy