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. Here we report results of a detailed analysis of the urban and non-urbancontributions to particulate matter (PM) concentrations and source contributions in five Europeancities, namely Schiedam (the Netherlands, NL), Lens (France, FR), Leipzig(Germany, DE), Zurich (Switzerland, CH) and Barcelona (Spain, ES). PMchemically speciated data from 12 European paired monitoring sites (onetraffic, five urban, five regional and one continental background) were analysed bypositive matrix factorisation (PMF) and Lenschow's approach to assignmeasured PM and source contributions to the different spatial levels. Fivecommon sources were obtained at the 12 sites: sulfate-rich (SSA) and nitrate-rich (NSA) aerosols,road traffic (RT), mineral matter (MM), and aged sea salt (SS). These sources explained from 55 % to 88 % of PMmass at urban low-traffic-impact sites (UB) depending on the country. Threeadditional common sources were identified at a subset of sites/countries,namely biomass burning (BB) (FR, CH and DE), explaining an additional 9 %–13 % of PMmass, and residual oil combustion (V–Ni) and primary industrial (IND) (NL and ES), together explaining an additional11 %–15 % of PM mass. In all countries, the majority of PM measured at UBsites was of a regional + continental (R + C) nature (64 %–74 %). The R + C PMincrements due to anthropogenic emissions in DE, NL, CH, ES and FRrepresented around 66 %, 62 %, 52 %, 32 % and 23 %, respectively,of UB PM mass. Overall, the R + C PM increments due to natural andanthropogenic sources showed opposite seasonal profiles with the formerincreasing in summer and the latter increasing in winter, even if exceptionswere observed. In ES, the anthropogenic R + C PM increment was higher insummer due to high contributions from regional SSA and V–Ni sources, bothbeing mostly related to maritime shipping emissions at the Spanish sites.Conversely, in the other countries, higher anthropogenic R + C PM incrementsin winter were mostly due to high contributions from NSA and BB regionalsources during the cold season. On annual average, the sources showinghigher R + C increments were SSA (77 %–91 % of SSA source contribution at theurban level), NSA (51 %–94 %), MM (58 %–80 %), BB (42 %–78 %) and IND (91 %in NL). Other sources showing high R + C increments were photochemistry and coal combustion (97 %–99 %;identified only in DE). The highest regional SSA increment was observed inES, especially in summer, and was related to ship emissions, enhancedphotochemistry and peculiar meteorological patterns of the WesternMediterranean. The highest R + C and urban NSA increments were observed inNL and associated with high availability of precursors such as NOx and NH3 . Conversely, on average, the sources showing higher localincrements were RT (62 %–90 % at all sites) and V–Ni (65 %–80 % in ES andNL). The relationship between SSA and V–Ni indicated that the contributionof ship emissions to the local sulfate concentrations in NL has stronglydecreased since 2007 thanks to the shift from high-sulfur- to low-sulfur-content fuel used by ships. An improvement of air quality in the five citiesincluded here could be achieved by further reducing local (urban) emissionsof PM, NOx and NH3 (from both traffic and non-traffic sources) butalso SO2 and PM (from maritime ships and ports) and giving highrelevance to non-urban contributions by further reducing emissions of SO2 (maritime shipping) and NH3 (agriculture) and those fromindustry, regional BB sources and coal combustion.

Long-range and local air pollution: what can we learn from chemical speciation of particulate matter at paired sites?