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Substantial changes in anthropogenic aerosols and precursor gas emissionshave occurred over recent decades due to the implementation of air pollutioncontrol legislation and economic growth. The response of atmospheric aerosolsto these changes and the impact on climate are poorly constrained,particularly in studies using detailed aerosol chemistry–climate models. Herewe compare the HadGEM3-UKCA (Hadley Centre Global Environment Model-United Kingdom Chemistry and Aerosols) coupled chemistry–climate model for the period1960–2009 against extensive ground-based observations of sulfate aerosolmass (1978–2009), total suspended particle matter (SPM, 1978–1998),PM10 (1997–2009), aerosol optical depth (AOD, 2000–2009), aerosol sizedistributions (2008–2009) and surface solar radiation (SSR, 1960–2009) overEurope. The model underestimates observed sulfate aerosol mass (normalisedmean bias factor (NMBF) = −0.4), SPM (NMBF = −0.9), PM10 (NMBF= −0.2), aerosol number concentrations (N30 NMBF = −0.85; N50 NMBF= −0.65; and N100 NMBF = −0.96) and AOD (NMBF= −0.01) but slightly overpredicts SSR (NMBF = 0.02). Trends inaerosol over the observational period are well simulated by the model, withobserved (simulated) changes in sulfate of −68 % (−78 %), SPM of−42 % (−20 %), PM10 of −9 % (−8 %) and AOD of−11 % (−14 %). Discrepancies in the magnitude of simulatedaerosol mass do not affect the ability of the model to reproduce the observedSSR trends. The positive change in observed European SSR (5 %) during1990–2009 ("brightening") is better reproduced by the model when aerosolradiative effects (ARE) are included (3 %), compared to simulations whereARE are excluded (0.2 %). The simulated top-of-the-atmosphere aerosolradiative forcing over Europe under all-sky conditions increased by> 3.0 W m−2 during the period 1970–2009 in response to changes inanthropogenic emissions and aerosol concentrations

Modelled and observed changes in aerosols and surface solar radiation over Europe between 1960 and 2009