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The Tibetan Plateau (TP) has long been identified to be critical inregulating the Asian monsoon climate and hydrological cycle. In thismodeling study a series of numerical experiments with a global climate modelare designed to simulate radiative effect of black carbon (BC) and dust insnow, and to assess the relative impacts of anthropogenic CO2 andcarbonaceous particles in the atmosphere and snow on the snowpack over theTP and subsequent impacts on the Asian monsoon climate and hydrologicalcycle. Simulations results show a large BC content in snow over the TP,especially the southern slope. Because of the high aerosol content in snowand large incident solar radiation in the low latitude and high elevation,the TP exhibits the largest surface radiative flux changes induced byaerosols (e.g. BC, Dust) in snow compared to any other snow-covered regionsin the world. Simulation results show that the aerosol-induced snow albedo perturbationsgenerate surface radiative flux changes of 5–25 W m−2 during spring,with a maximum in April or May. BC-in-snow increases the surface airtemperature by around 1.0 °C averaged over the TP and reduces springsnowpack over the TP more than pre-industrial to present CO2 increaseand carbonaceous particles in the atmosphere. As a result, runoff increasesduring late winter and early spring but decreases during late spring andearly summer (i.e. a trend toward earlier melt dates). The snowmeltefficacy, defined as the snowpack reduction per unit degree of warminginduced by the forcing agent, is 1–4 times larger for BC-in-snow thanCO2 increase during April–July, indicating that BC-in-snow moreefficiently accelerates snowmelt because the increased net solar radiationinduced by reduced albedo melts the snow more efficiently than snow melt dueto warming in the air. The TP also influences the South (SAM) and East (EAM) Asian monsoon throughits dynamical and thermal forcing. Simulation results show that duringboreal spring aerosols are transported by southwesterly, causing someparticles to reach higher altitude and deposit to the snowpack over the TP.While BC and Organic Matter (OM) in the atmosphere directly absorb sunlightand warm the air, the darkened snow surface polluted by BC absorbs moresolar radiation and increases the skin temperature, which warms the airabove through sensible heat flux. Both effects enhance the upward motion ofair and spur deep convection along the TP during the pre-monsoon season,resulting in earlier onset of the SAM and increase of moisture, cloudinessand convective precipitation over northern India. BC-in-snow has a moresignificant impact on the EAM in July than CO2 increase andcarbonaceous particles in the atmosphere. Contributed by the significantincrease of both sensible heat flux associated with the warm skintemperature and latent heat flux associated with increased soil moisturewith long memory, the role of the TP as a heat pump is elevated from springthrough summer as the land-sea thermal contrast increases to strengthen theEAM. As a result, both southern China and northern China become wetter, butcentral China (i.e. Yangtze River Basin) becomes drier – a near-zonalanomaly pattern that is consistent with the dominant mode of precipitationvariability in East Asia. The snow impurity effects reported in this study likely represent some upperlimits as snowpack is remarkably overestimated over the TP due to excessiveprecipitation. Improving the simulation of precipitation and snowpack willbe important for improved estimates of the effects of snowpack pollution infuture work

Sensitivity studies on the impacts of Tibetan Plateau snowpack pollution on the Asian hydrological cycle and monsoon climate