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Non-native plants typically benefit from enemy release following their naturalization in non-native habitats. However, over time, herbivorous insects specializing on such plants may invade from the native range and thereby diminish the benefits of enemy release that these plants may experience. In this study, we compare rates of invasion spread across Europe of three North American insect folivores: the   Lepidoptera   leaf miners    Macrosaccus   robiniella    and    Parectopa   robiniella   , and the gall midge    Obolodiplosis   robiniae   , that specialize on    Robinia   pseudoacacia   . This tree species is one of the most widespread non-native trees in Europe. We find that spread rates vary among the three species and that some of this variation can be explained by differences in their life history traits. We also report that geographical variation in spread rates are influenced by distribution of    Robinia   pseudoacacia   , human population and temperature, though    Robinia   pseudoacacia    occurrence had the greatest influence. The importance of host tree occurrence on invasion speed can be explained by the general importance of hosts on the population growth and spread of invading species.

Non-native plant drives the spatial dynamics of its herbivores: the case of black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia ) in Europe