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Precision herbicide application can substantially reduce herbicide input and weed control cost in turfgrass management systems. Intelligent spot-spraying system predominantly relies on machine vision-based detectors for autonomous weed control. In this work, several deep convolutional neural networks (DCNN) were constructed for detection of dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale  Web.), ground ivy ( Glechoma hederacea  L.), and spotted spurge ( Euphorbia maculata  L.) growing in perennial ryegrass. When the networks were trained using a dataset containing a total of 15,486 negative (images contained perennial ryegrass with no target weeds) and 17,600 positive images (images contained target weeds), VGGNet achieved high F 1  scores (≥0.9278), with high recall values (≥0.9952) for detection of  E. maculata, G. hederacea , and  T. officinale  growing in perennial ryegrass. The F 1  scores of AlexNet ranged from 0.8437 to 0.9418 and were generally lower than VGGNet at detecting  E. maculata ,  G. hederacea , and  T. officinale . GoogleNet is not an effective DCNN at detecting these weed species mainly due to the low precision values. DetectNet is an effective DCNN and achieved high F 1  scores (≥0.9843) in the testing datasets for detection of  T. officinale  growing in perennial ryegrass. Moreover, VGGNet had the highest Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) values, while GoogleNet had the lowest MCC values. Overall, the approach of training DCNN, particularly VGGNet and DetectNet, presents a clear path toward developing a machine vision-based decision system in smart sprayers for precision weed control in perennial ryegrass.

Weed Detection in Perennial Ryegrass With Deep Learning Convolutional Neural Network