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The dinoflagellate  Dinophysis  is responsible for causing diarrhetic shellfish poisoning impacting shellfish aquaculture globally.  Dinophysis  species are invariably plastidic specialist non-constitutive mixoplankton (pSNCM), combining phagotrophy with acquired phototrophy.  Dinophysis  acquires phototrophy from another pSNCM, the ciliate  Mesodinium , which in turn acquires phototrophy from cryptophytes within the  Teleaulax-Plagioselmis-Geminigera  clade. Despite this trophic linkage, the temporal dynamics of cryptophyte- Mesodinium-Dinophysis  remain poorly understood. In this study, we present the first  Teleaulax-Mesodinium-Dinophysis  (TMD)-complex system dynamics model. Using this, we explored the dynamics of TMD interactions under different ecological settings. Temperature, nutrient load, mixed layer depth, and irradiance all greatly influenced the timing and magnitude of the TMD-complex interactions and, as a result,  Dinophysis  bloom duration and peak. Availability of  Mesodinium  and temporal matching of its growth to that of  Dinophysis  are also key biotic factors; the timing of  Mesodinium  availability impacts the potential of  Dinophysis  growth for up to 3 months. Integrating our TMD-complex model with a suitable hydrodynamic model could greatly improve our understanding of bloom formation and aid in forecasting harmful algal bloom (HAB) events. Future monitoring of  Dinophysis  would also be enhanced by the monitoring of the precursor prey species,  Teleaulax  and  Mesodinium , which are rarely accorded the same effort as the HAB forming dinoflagellate.

Acquired Phototrophy and Its Implications for Bloom Dynamics of the Teleaulax-Mesodinium-Dinophysis-Complex