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Housefly,  Musca domestica , is considered responsible for transmitting a wide variety of human and veterinary diseases. Mostly, insecticides are being used for their control and more commonly, pyrethroid insecticides worldwide. However, resistance has been reported against various pyrethroid insecticides. Houseflies become resistant by two major mechanisms, i.e., target site insensitivity through knockdown resistance gene mutation ( kdr ) and enzyme detoxification. Thus, the current study was designed to monitor the frequency of pyrethroid resistance gene  kdr  in housefly populations of District Jhang. The flies were collected from seven sampling sites and then reared in the lab for molecular and biochemical assays. The amplification of template DNA was performed for knockdown resistance gene through the outer primers  kdr1  and  kdr4 , and the inner primers  kdr1  and  kdr2  using PASA (PCR Amplification of Specific Alleles) method which specifically amplify the domain-II of  kdr  gene. Three populations were found homozygous susceptible (+/+; 42.85%), whereas two populations were found genetically homozygous resistant (−/−; 28.57%) which are insensitive to pyrethroid insecticides. Similarly, two populations were found heterozygous (+/−; 28.57%) for  kdr  suggesting thereby that at least 1/4th homozygous-resistant (−/−) housefly populations with insensitivity to pyrethroids would be produced in the future keeping in view the Mendelian ratio. Biochemical assay showed that homozygous-resistant populations had increased activity of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), α-Carboxylesterases (α-Carboxyl), β-Carboxylesterase (β-Carboxyl), Alkaline Phosphatase (AkP), and Acidic Phosphatase (AcP) enzymes. In addition, heterozygous populations also showed increased activities of these enzymes. The current results would not only help avoid the indiscriminate load of insecticides onto the environment but also serve as a hallmark for the management of housefly populations in target areas in the future.

frontiers in environmental science

Frequency of Pyrethroid Insecticide Resistance kdr Gene and Its Associated Enzyme Modulation in Housefly, Musca domestica L. Populations From Jhang, Pakistan