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Spatial ability has long been considered the vital cognitive ability tightly linked to science learning because visuospatial thinking is essential for the processes of science learning. Therefore, in science learning materials, visual displays are commonly added to illustrate science concepts such as molecular models, the structure of the earth and plate tectonics, and the changing phases of the moon; Learning these concepts requires spatial ability (Mulholland & Ginns, 2008; Sanchez & Wiley, 2010; Stull, Gainer, Padalkar, & Hegarty, 2016). Numerous studies have pointed out that spatial ability not only influences performances in science learning, but also affects young adolescents who subsequently perform relevant occupations (e.g., Lubinski, 2010; Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009), highlighting the importance of spatial ability. Although spatial ability is regarded as key to learning science well, its effects are sometimes not as significant as expected. Some studies have identified significant positive effects of spatial ability (e.g., Ozdemir, 2010; Self & Golledge, 1994), but many studies have failed to find these effects (e.g., Helle, Nivala, Kronqvist, Ericsson, & Lehtinen, 2010; Lopez, Shavelson, Nandagopal, Szu, & Penn, 2014). These inconsistent results may be influenced by students’ acquired knowledge from the environment and education. Currently, students are frequently exposed to a digital environment. Visuospatial displays of learning materials are colourful and can be presented as animations or three-dimensional visualizations. In 2005, ‘The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning’ was published. Based on previous accumulated studies, this book concludes several learning theories and offers clear guidelines on the general principles of material design in a multimedia environment. However, more than a decade later, how visual displays facilitate learning remains a topic of discussion (see Renkl & Scheiter, 2017 for a discussion). Because illustrations and visual displays are abundant in science learning materials, whether these general principles of multimedia learning are suitable (or inadequate) for science instructional design is a topic worthy of discussion in areas of science education. Before such discussions, the role of spatial abilities and their fundamental relation to science learning should be re-examined from a cognitive perspective, which is the main purpose of the Yi-Chun Chen National Taiwan University & National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Fang-Ying Yang National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan Cheng-Chieh Chang National Taiwan Ocean University, Taiwan Abstract. Science learning requires visuospatial thinking. Accordingly, spatial ability is regarded as the key to learning science well, but its effects are sometimes not as significant as expected. To this end, this research aims to conceptualize spatial abilities and to clarify their relation to science learning based on an analysis of empirical studies. Content analysis of 39 studies showed that (1) intrinsic-dynamic skills are the most frequently measured, (2) the explored science topics mostly involve well-established knowledge, (3) the effects of spatial ability on science achievement are inconsistent, and (4) educational interventions are not always effective in improving students’ spatial abilities or science achievement. It is argued that domain knowledge interferes with the study results and that domain-specific spatial ability exists, referring to apply spatial-type and domain-specific knowledge. Supported by cognitive theories and empirical evidence, a model is constructed to exhibit the relations between domain-general and domainspecific spatial ability as well as their effects on science achievement. According to the model, the two spatial abilities functionally partially overlap in the operations of spatial skills, and educational experience and malleable spatial skills are reciprocal; however, improvement in general spatial ability, involving the function of the central executive system, is likely limited.

CONCEPTUALIZING SPATIAL ABILITIES AND THEIR RELATION TO SCIENCE LEARNING FROM A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE