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One of the most striking findings to emerge from the various studies of foreigner talk (FT) is the variability in the FT characteristics observed and in the frequency with which they are reported to occur. In studies of FT based on native speakers' introspections about how they would address foreigners, every sentence produced contains some of the familiar FT characteristics — deletions, grammatical simplification, lexical analysis, etc. (Ferguson, 1975; Workgroup on Foreign Workers' Language, 1978). In other studies, in which foreign adults were actually engaged in conversation by native speakers, some researchers have reported considerable use of FT as well as imitation of the foreigners' mistakes (Hatch, Shapira and Gough, 1975; Workgroup on Foreign Workers' Language, 1978), whereas some report no use of FT characteristics (Campbell, Schlue and VanderBrook, 1977) and others report that the speech for foreigners is simplified but find no use of incorrect deletions or mirroring of foreigners' mistakes (Gaskill, Campbell and VanderBrook, 1977). How can these differences among the various findings be explained? One obvious source of variance is the foreign addressee. It may be that foreigners who are perceived as relatively high status, intelligent or the social equal of the native speaker are not addressed with the more extreme FT characteristics, which are reserved for lower-status foreigners. In addition, the perceived second-language ability of the foreigner may be of crucial importance. Foreigners who seem to understand more or whose second-language production is relatively unaccented may elicit fewer foreigner talk characteristics. A second possible source of variance is the native speaker. Some personality types may be more prone to producing FT than others. Alternately, native speakers who have had considerable experience with foreigners may

The Interactional Origins of Foreigner Talk: Municipal Employees and Foreign Workers