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Throughout the past few decades, urban development programmes for so-called disadvantaged neighbourhoods have gained considerable attention. In recent European history, in the wake of a growing political recognition that exclusion threatens social stability, economic prosperity and democratic legitimacy,1 the focus of these programmes gradually shifted from mainly physical projects towards more broader and integrated strategies that take local community participation into account.2 Today, participation is considered a general trend as it carries the promise of connecting (policy) rationality to perception,3 obtaining efficient and effective decisions and outcomes,4 and fostering processes of empowerment and individual and social wellbeing.5

3. The Social Question as an Urban Question. A Social-Pedagogical Analysis of Participatory Initiatives in Rabot (Ghent) during the Nineteenth Century