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Background   Calisto  is the largest butterfly genus in the West Indies but its systematics, historical biogeography and the causes of its diversification have not been previously rigorously evaluated. Several studies attempting to explain the wide-ranging diversity of  Calisto  gave different weights to vicariance, dispersal and adaptive radiation. We utilized molecular phylogenetic approaches and secondary calibrations points to estimate lineage ages. In addition, we used the dispersal-extinction-cladogenesis model and Caribbean paleogeographical information to reconstruct ancestral geographical distributions. We also evaluated different models of diversification to estimate the dynamics of lineage radiation within  Calisto . By understanding the evolution of  Calisto  butterflies, we attempt to identify the main processes acting on insular insect diversity and the causes of its origin and its maintenance.    Results  The crown age of  Calisto  was estimated to the early Oligocene (31 ± 5 Ma), and a single shift in diversification rate following a diversity-dependent speciation process was the best explanation for the present-day diversity found within the genus. A major increase in diversification rate was recovered at 14 Ma, following geological arrangements that favoured the availability of empty niches. Inferred ancestral distributional ranges suggested that the origin of extant  Calisto  is in agreement with a vicariant model and the origin of the Cuban lineage was likely the result of vicariance caused by the Cuba-Hispaniola split. A long-distance dispersal was the best explanation for the colonization of Jamaica and the Bahamas.    Conclusions  The ancestral geographical distribution of  Calisto  is in line with the paleogeographical model of Caribbean colonization, which favours island-to-island vicariance. Because the sister lineage of  Calisto  remains ambiguous, its arrival to the West Indies remains to be explained, although, given its age and historical biogeography, the hypothesized GAARlandia land bridge might have been a plausible introduction route from continental America. Intra-island radiation caused by ecological innovation and the abiotic creation of niche spaces was found to be the main force shaping  Calisto  diversity and island endemism in Hispaniola and Cuba.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-014-0199-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

bmc evolutionary biology

Causes of endemic radiation in the Caribbean: evidence from the historical biogeography and diversification of the butterfly genus Calisto(Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Satyrini)