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Background  Blood-feeding arthropods can harm their hosts in many ways, such as through direct tissue damage and anemia, but also by distracting hosts from foraging or watching for predators. Blood-borne pathogens transmitted by arthropods can further harm the host. Thus, effective behavioral and immunological defenses against blood-feeding arthropods may provide important fitness advantages to hosts if they reduce bites, and in systems involving pathogen transmission, if they lower pathogen transmission rate.    Methods  We tested whether Rock Pigeons  (Columba livia)  have effective behavioral and immunological defenses against a blood-feeding hippoboscid fly  (Pseudolynchia canariensis)  and, if so, whether the two defenses interact. The fly vectors the blood parasite  Haemoproteus columbae;  we further tested whether these defenses reduced the transmission success of blood parasites when birds were exposed to infected flies. We compared four experimental treatments in which hosts had available both purported defenses, only one of the defenses, or no defenses against the flies.    Results  We found that preening and immunological defenses were each effective in decreasing the survival and reproductive success of flies. However, the two defenses were additive, rather than one defense enhancing or decreasing the effectiveness of the other defense. Neither defense reduced the prevalence of  H. columbae , nor the intensity of infection in birds exposed to infected flies.    Conclusions  Flies experience reduced fitness when maintained on hosts with immunological or preening defenses. This suggests that if vectors are given a choice among hosts, they may choose hosts that are less defended, which could impact pathogen transmission in a system where vectors can choose among hosts.

An experimental test of the effects of behavioral and immunological defenses against vectors: do they interact to protect birds from blood parasites?