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Large-eddy simulation (LES) is able to capture key boundary-layer (BL)turbulence and cloud processes. Yet, large-scale forcing and surface turbulentfluxes of sensible and latent heat are often poorly prescribed for LESsimulations. We derive these quantities from measurements and reanalysisobtained for two cold air outbreak (CAO) events during Phase I of the AerosolCloud meTeorology Interactions oVer the western ATlantic Experiment (ACTIVATE)in February-March 2020. We study the two contrasting CAO cases by performingLES and test the sensitivity of BL structure and clouds to large-scale forcingsand turbulent heat fluxes. Profiles of atmospheric state and large-scaledivergence and surface turbulent heat fluxes obtained from the reanalysis dataERA5 agree reasonably well with those derived from ACTIVATE field measurementsfor both cases at the sampling time and location. Therefore, we adopt the timeevolving heat fluxes, wind and advective tendencies profiles from ERA5reanalysis data to drive the LES. We find that large-scale thermodynamicadvective tendencies and wind relaxations are important for the LES to capturethe evolving observed BL meteorological states characterized by the hourly ERA5reanalysis data and validated by the observations. We show that the divergence(or vertical velocity) is important in regulating the BL growth driven bysurface heat fluxes in LES simulations. The evolution of liquid water path islargely affected by the evolution of surface heat fluxes. The liquid water pathsimulated in LES agrees reasonably well with the ACTIVATE measurements.Thisstudy paves the path to investigate aerosol-cloud-meteorology interactionsusing LES informed and evaluated by ACTIVATE field measurements.

journal of the atmospheric sciences

Large-eddy simulations of marine boundary-layer clouds associated with  cold air outbreaks during the ACTIVATE campaign-part 1: Case setup and  sensitivities to large-scale forcings