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Chronic, high-frequency (&gt;100 Hz) electrical stimulation, known as deep brain stimulation (DBS), of the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) is a highly effective therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) and dystonia. Despite some understanding of how it works acutely in PD models, there remain questions about its mechanisms of action. Several hypotheses have been proposed, such as depolarization blockade, activation of inhibitory synapses, depletion of neurotransmitters, and/or disruption/alteration of network oscillations. In this study we investigated the cellular mechanisms of high-frequency stimulation (HFS) in entopeduncular nucleus (EP; rat equivalent of GPi) neurons using whole cell patch-clamp recordings. We found that HFS applied inside the EP nucleus induced a prolonged afterdepolarization that was dependent on stimulation frequency, pulse duration, and current amplitude. The high frequencies (&gt;100 Hz) and pulse widths (&gt;0.15 ms) used clinically for dystonia DBS could reliably induce these afterdepolarizations, which persisted under blockade of ionotropic glutamate (kynurenic acid, 2 mM), GABA A  (picrotoxin, 50 μM), GABA B  (CGP 55845, 1 μM), and acetylcholine nicotinic receptors (DHβE, 2 μM). However, this effect was blocked by atropine (2 μM; nonselective muscarinic antagonist) or tetrodotoxin (0.5 μM). Finally, the muscarinic-dependent afterdepolarizations were sensitive to Ca 2+ -sensitive nonspecific cationic (CAN) channel blockade. Hence, these data suggest that muscarinic receptor activation during HFS can lead to feedforward excitation through the opening of CAN channels. This study for the first time describes a cholinergic mechanism of HFS in EP neurons and provides new insight into the underlying mechanisms of DBS.

Cholinergic mechanisms of high-frequency stimulation in entopeduncular nucleus