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Precocial birds begin embryonic life with an ectothermic metabolic phenotype and rapidly develop an endothermic phenotype after hatching. Switching to a high-energy, endothermic phenotype requires high-functioning respiratory and cardiovascular systems to deliver sufficient environmental oxygen to the tissues. We measured tidal volume (VT), breathing frequency (ƒ), minute ventilation (V̇e), and whole-animal oxygen consumption (V̇o2) in response to gradual cooling from 37.5°C (externally pipped paranates, EP) or 35°C (hatchlings) to 20°C along with response to hypercapnia during developmental transition from an ectothermic, EP paranate to endothermic hatchling. To examine potential eggshell constraints on EP ventilation, we repeated these experiments in artificially hatched early and late EP paranates. Hatchlings and artificially hatched late EP paranates were able to increase V̇o2significantly in response to cooling. EP paranates had high ƒ that decreased with cooling, coupled with an unchanging low VT and did not respond to hypercapnia. Hatchlings had significantly lower ƒ and higher VT and V̇e that increased with cooling and hypercapnia. In response to artificial hatching, all ventilation values quickly reached those of hatchlings and responded to hypercapnia. The timing of artificial hatching influenced the temperature response, with only artificially hatched late EP animals, exhibiting the hatchling ventilation response to cooling. We suggest one potential constraint on ventilatory responses of EP paranates is the rigid eggshell, limiting air sac expansion during inhalation and constraining VT Upon natural or artificial hatching, the VT limitation is removed and the animal is able to increase VT, V̇e, and thus V̇o2, and exhibit an endothermic phenotype.

american journal of physiology. regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology/american journal of physiology. regulatory, integrative, and comparative physiology

Ventilation changes associated with hatching and maturation of an endothermic phenotype in the Pekin duck,Anas platyrhynchos domestica