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A mutation in a gene that regulates folate metabolism has effects that persist for five generations, according to a new study in mice. The DNA of the affected animals displayed abnormal epigenetic marks, highlighting the value of these mutant mice as a model for studying the epigenetic transmission of developmental defects. Researchers have known for many years that folate deficiency can cause multiple congenital abnormalities, including cardiovascular defects, spina bifida, and intrauterine growth restriction. The exact mechanism has been unclear, but epigenetic regulation is thought to have a role. Folate is a key source of methyl groups for the epigenetic marks that are added to DNA to regulate gene expression and establish the level of gene activity across generations. To take a closer look at how folate affects development and transmission of epigenetic information, Nisha Padmanabhan et al. generated mice deficient in methionine synthase reductase (Mtrr), an enzyme that sets up the transfer of methyl groups from folate to cellular substrates such as DNA. The researchers found that the offspring of mice deficient in this enzyme developed normally, but the grandchildren of Mtrr-deficient grandmothers or maternal grandfathers were severely affected. These third-generation offspring had high levels of congenital malformations, and many of them were also growth restricted, apparently due to problems in the uterine environment during their development. The two phenotypes were distinct: when the grandchildren were transferred as embryos to a healthy, genetically wild-type mother’s uterus, they were not growth restricted, but they did have congenital abnormalities. Only congenital malformations persisted, and they did so for at least five generations. The researchers speculate that the transgenerational effects are due to an inability to maintain genome-wide DNA methylation patterns in both imprinted and nonimprinted genes. In support of this idea, the researchers observed aberrant DNA methylation in the placentas of the wild-type grandprogeny of Mtrr-mutant grandmothers. In addition to providing a window into the inheritance of epigenetic states, the findings also suggest that dietary deficiencies in folate in humans may have effects beyond a single generation.

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