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Animals are increasingly faced with human-induced stressors that vary in space and time, thus we can expect population-level divergence in behaviors that help animals to cope with environmental change. However, empirical evidence of behavioral trait divergence across environmental extremes is lacking. We tested for variation in behavioral traits among 2 populations of an African cichlid fish ( Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor victoriae Seegers, 1990) that experience extremes of dissolved oxygen (DO) and turbidity and are known to vary in a number of physiological and life history traits associated with these stressors. Using a common garden rearing experiment, F1 progeny from wild-caught parents originating from a swamp (low DO, clear) and a river (high DO, turbid) were reared in high DO, clear water. Predator simulation assays were conducted to test for (1) variation in boldness, general activity, and foraging activity between populations, (2) differences in correlations between behaviors within and across populations, and (3) repeatability of behaviors. There was strong evidence for divergence between populations, with swamp fish being more bold (i.e., leaving refuge sooner after a simulated predator attack) and active (i.e., spent more time out of refuge) than river fish. Across populations there were positive correlations between foraging activity and both boldness and general activity; however, within populations, there was only a strong positive relationship between foraging activity and boldness in the river population. Here, we have demonstrated that populations that originate from drastically different environments can produce progeny that exhibit measurable differences in behaviors and their correlated relationships even when reared under common conditions.

Behavioral differences within and among populations of an African cichlid found in divergent and extreme environments